Informing the pandemic response: the role of the WHO's COVID-19 Weekly Epidemiological Update.

On 31 December 2019, the Municipal Health Commission of Wuhan, China, reported a cluster of atypical pneumonia cases. On 5 January 2020, the WHO publicly released a Disease Outbreak News (DON) report, providing information about the pneumonia cases, implemented response interventions, and WHO's risk assessment and advice on public health and social measures. Following 9 additional DON reports and 209 daily situation reports, on 17 August 2020, WHO published the first edition of the COVID-19 Weekly Epidemiological Update (WEU). On 1 September 2023, the 158th edition of the WEU was published on WHO's website, marking its final issue. Since then, the WEU has been replaced by comprehensive global epidemiological updates on COVID-19 released every 4 weeks. During the span of its publication, the webpage that hosts the WEU and the COVID-19 Operational Updates was accessed annually over 1.4 million times on average, with visits originating from more than 100 countries. This article provides an in-depth analysis of the WEU process, from data collection to publication, focusing on the scope, technical details, main features, underlying methods, impact and limitations. We also discuss WHO's experience in disseminating epidemiological information on the COVID-19 pandemic at the global level and provide recommendations for enhancing collaboration and information sharing to support future health emergency responses.

Systematic surveillance tools to reduce rodent pests in disadvantaged urban areas can empower communities and improve public health.

Rodents are notorious pests, known for transmitting major public health diseases and causing agricultural and economic losses. The lack of site-specific and national standardised rodent surveillance in several disadvantaged communities has rendered interventions targeted towards rodent control as often ineffective. Here, by using the example from a pilot case-study in the Bahamas, we present a unique experience wherein, through multidisciplinary and community engagement, we simultaneously developed a standardised national surveillance protocol, and performed two parallel but integrated activities: (1) eight days of theoretical and practical training of selected participants; and (2) a three-month post-training pilot rodent surveillance in the urban community of Over-the-Hill, Nassau, The Bahamas. To account for social and environmental conditions influencing rodent proliferation in the Bahamas, we engaged selected influential community members through a semi-structured interview and gathered additional site-specific information using a modified Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) exterior and interior rodent evaluation form, along with other validated instruments such as tracking plates and snap trapping, to test and establish a standardised site-specific rodent surveillance protocol tailored for the Bahamas. Our engagement with community members highlighted poor disposal of animal and human food, irregular garbage collection, unapproved refuse storage, lack of accessible dumpsters, poor bulk waste management, ownership problems and structural deficiencies as major factors fuelling rodent proliferation in the study areas. Accordingly, results from our pilot survey using active rodent signs (that is, the presence of rodent runs, burrows, faecal material or gnawed material) as a proxy of rodent infestation in a generalized linear model confirmed that the variables earlier identified during the community engagement program as significantly correlated with rodent activities (and capturing) across the study areas. The successful implementation of the novel site-specific protocol by trained participants, along with the correlation of their findings with those recorded during the community engagement program, underscores its suitability and applicability in disadvantaged urban settings. This experience should serve as a reference for promoting a standardised protocol for monitoring rodent activities in many disadvantaged urban settings of the Global South, while also fostering a holistic understanding of rodent proliferation. Through this pilot case-study, we advocate for the feasibility of developing sustainable rodent control interventions that are acceptable to both local communities and public authorities, particularly through the involvement of a multidisciplinary team of professionals and community members.

Greater agreement is required to harness the potential of health intelligence: a critical interpretive synthesis.

OBJECTIVES: To synthesize existing knowledge on the features of, and approaches to, health intelligence, including definitions, key concepts, frameworks, methods and tools, types of evidence used, and research gaps. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: We applied a critical interpretive synthesis methodology, combining systematic searching, purposive sampling, and inductive analysis to explore the topic. We conducted electronic and supplementary searches to identify records (papers, books, websites) based on their potential relevance to health intelligence. The key themes identified in the literature were combined under each of the compass subquestions and circulated among the research team for discussion and interpretation. RESULTS: Of the 290 records screened, 40 were included in the synthesis. There is no clear definition of health intelligence in the literature. Some records describe it in similar terms as public health surveillance. Some focus on the use of artificial intelligence, while others refer to health intelligence in a military or security sense. And some authors have suggested a broader definition of health intelligence that explicitly includes the concepts of synthesis of research evidence for informed decision making. CONCLUSION: Rather than developing a new or all-encompassing definition, we suggest incorporating the concept and scope of health intelligence within the evidence ecosystem.

WHO Global Situational Alert System: a mixed methods multistage approach to identify country-level COVID-19 alerts.

BACKGROUND: Globally, since 1 January 2020 and as of 24 January 2023, there have been over 664 million cases of COVID-19 and over 6.7 million deaths reported to WHO. WHO developed an evidence-based alert system, assessing public health risk on a weekly basis in 237 countries, territories and areas from May 2021 to June 2022. This aimed to facilitate the early identification of situations where healthcare capacity may become overstretched. METHODS: The process involved a three-stage mixed methods approach. In the first stage, future deaths were predicted from the time series of reported cases and deaths to produce an initial alert level. In the second stage, this alert level was adjusted by incorporating a range of contextual indicators and accounting for the quality of information available using a Bayes classifier. In the third stage, countries with an alert level of 'High' or above were added to an operational watchlist and assistance was deployed as needed. RESULTS: Since June 2021, the system has supported the release of more than US$27 million from WHO emergency funding, over 450 000 rapid antigen diagnostic testing kits and over 6000 oxygen concentrators. Retrospective evaluation indicated that the first two stages were needed to maximise sensitivity, where 44% (IQR 29%-67%) of weekly watchlist alerts would not have been identified using only reported cases and deaths. The alerts were timely and valid in most cases; however, this could only be assessed on a non-representative sample of countries with hospitalisation data available. CONCLUSIONS: The system provided a standardised approach to monitor the pandemic at the country level by incorporating all available data on epidemiological analytics and contextual assessments. While this system was developed for COVID-19, a similar system could be used for future outbreaks and emergencies, with necessary adjustments to parameters and indicators.

One health systems strengthening in countries: Tripartite tools and approaches at the human-animal-environment interface.

Unexpected pathogen transmission between animals, humans and their shared environments can impact all aspects of society. The Tripartite organisations-the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH)-have been collaborating for over two decades. The inclusion of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) with the Tripartite, forming the 'Quadripartite' in 2021, creates a new and important avenue to engage environment sectors in the development of additional tools and resources for One Health coordination and improved health security globally. Beginning formally in 2010, the Tripartite set out strategic directions for the coordination of global activities to address health risks at the human-animal-environment interface. This paper highlights the historical background of this collaboration in the specific area of health security, using country examples to demonstrate lessons learnt and the evolution and pairing of Tripartite programmes and processes to jointly develop and deliver capacity strengthening tools to countries and strengthen performance for iterative evaluations. Evaluation frameworks, such as the International Health Regulations (IHR) Monitoring and Evaluation Framework, the WOAH Performance of Veterinary Services (PVS) Pathway and the FAO multisectoral evaluation tools for epidemiology and surveillance, support a shared global vision for health security, ultimately serving to inform decision making and provide a systematic approach for improved One Health capacity strengthening in countries. Supported by the IHR-PVS National Bridging Workshops and the development of the Tripartite Zoonoses Guide and related operational tools, the Tripartite and now Quadripartite, are working alongside countries to address critical gaps at the human-animal-environment interface.

Presence and Multi-Species Spatial Distribution of Oropouche Virus in Brazil within the One Health Framework.

Oropouche virus (OROV) is an emerging vector-borne arbovirus with high epidemic potential, causing illness in more than 500,000 people. Primarily contracted through its midge and mosquito vectors, OROV remains prevalent in its wild, non-human primate and sloth reservoir hosts as well. This virus is spreading across Latin America; however, the majority of cases occur in Brazil. The aim of this research is to document OROV's presence in Brazil using the One Health approach and geospatial techniques. A scoping review of the literature (2000 to 2021) was conducted to collect reports of this disease in humans and animal species. Data were then geocoded by first and second subnational levels and species to map OROV's spread. In total, 14 of 27 states reported OROV presence across 67 municipalities (second subnational level). However, most of the cases were in the northern region, within the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome. OROV was identified in humans, four vector species, four genera of non-human primates, one sloth species, and others. Utilizing One Health was important to understand the distribution of OROV across several species and to suggest possible environmental, socioeconomic, and demographic drivers of the virus's presence. As deforestation, climate change, and migration rates increase, further study into the spillover potential of this disease is needed.

IHR-PVS National Bridging Workshops, a tool to operationalize the collaboration between human and animal health while advancing sector-specific goals in countries.

Collaborative, One Health approaches support governments to effectively prevent, detect and respond to emerging health challenges, such as zoonotic diseases, that arise at the human-animal-environmental interfaces. To overcome these challenges, operational and outcome-oriented tools that enable animal health and human health services to work specifically on their collaboration are required. While international capacity and assessment frameworks such as the IHR-MEF (International Health Regulations-Monitoring and Evaluation Framework) and the OIE PVS (Performance of Veterinary Services) Pathway exist, a tool and process that could assess and strengthen the interactions between human and animal health sectors was needed. Through a series of six phased pilots, the IHR-PVS National Bridging Workshop (NBW) method was developed and refined. The NBW process gathers human and animal health stakeholders and follows seven sessions, scheduled across three days. The outputs from each session build towards the next one, following a structured process that goes from gap identification to joint planning of corrective measures. The NBW process allows human and animal health sector representatives to jointly identify actions that support collaboration while advancing evaluation goals identified through the IHR-MEF and the OIE PVS Pathway. By integrating sector-specific and collaborative goals, the NBWs help countries in creating a realistic, concrete and practical joint road map for enhanced compliance to international standards as well as strengthened preparedness and response for health security at the human-animal interface.

AeDES: a next-generation monitoring and forecasting system for environmental suitability of Aedes-borne disease transmission.

Aedes-borne diseases, such as dengue and chikungunya, are responsible for more than 50 million infections worldwide every year, with an overall increase of 30-fold in the last 50 years, mainly due to city population growth, more frequent travels and ecological changes. In the United States of America, the vast majority of Aedes-borne infections are imported from endemic regions by travelers, who can become new sources of mosquito infection upon their return home if the exposed population is susceptible to the disease, and if suitable environmental conditions for the mosquitoes and the virus are present. Since the susceptibility of the human population can be determined via periodic monitoring campaigns, the environmental suitability for the presence of mosquitoes and viruses becomes one of the most important pieces of information for decision makers in the health sector. We present a next-generation monitoring and forecasting system for [Formula: see text]-borne diseases' environmental suitability (AeDES) of transmission in the conterminous United States and transboundary regions, using calibrated ento-epidemiological models, climate models and temperature observations. After analyzing the seasonal predictive skill of AeDES, we briefly consider the recent Zika epidemic, and the compound effects of the current Central American dengue outbreak happening during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, to illustrate how a combination of tailored deterministic and probabilistic forecasts can inform key prevention and control strategies .

Mayaro virus in Latin America and the Caribbean.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the distribution of Mayaro virus (MAYV) in Latin America and the Caribbean and evaluate existing country-level MAYV surveillance mechanisms. METHODS: Research was conducted from May 2018 through May 2019 to collect data from academic literature on Mayaro fever in Latin America and the Caribbean. PubMed, ClinicalKey, Scopus, Nature, SciELO, LILACS, and Google Scholar were searched for peer-reviewed journal articles, and data from health authorities, including the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and ministries of health, was also sought. MAYV-related publications published from 1954 through 2019 were screened. Publications that added to the overall understanding of MAYV, including its geographical and epidemiological distribution, were included in this report. RESULTS: A total of 901 MAYV cases have been reported in humans in countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Since its discovery in 1954 in Trinidad and Tobago, MAYV has been isolated from individuals living in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, French Guiana, Haiti, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. Of those 901 cases, 42 of them were reported exclusively by health authorities. In contrast, 843 confirmed and presumptive autochthonous cases and an additional 16 imported cases were identified in academic literature. No country-level surveillance mechanisms for MAYV were recorded in academic literature or by health authorities. CONCLUSIONS: This report demonstrates that MAYV surveillance efforts are limited in comparison to the virus's presence in Latin America and the Caribbean, highlighting the importance of enhancing arboviral surveillance systems in the affected countries.

Mayaro virus in Latin America and the Caribbean

[ABSTRACT]. Objectives. To assess the distribution of Mayaro virus (MAYV) in Latin America and the Caribbean and evaluate existing country-level MAYV surveillance mechanisms. Methods. Research was conducted from May 2018 through May 2019 to collect data from academic literature on Mayaro fever in Latin America and the Caribbean. PubMed, ClinicalKey, Scopus, Nature, SciELO, LILACS, and Google Scholar were searched for peer-reviewed journal articles, and data from health authorities, including the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and ministries of health, was also sought. MAYV-related publications published from 1954 through 2019 were screened. Publications that added to the overall understanding of MAYV, including its geographical and epidemiological distribution, were included in this report. Results. A total of 901 MAYV cases have been reported in humans in countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Since its discovery in 1954 in Trinidad and Tobago, MAYV has been isolated from individuals living in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, French Guiana, Haiti, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. Of those 901 cases, 42 of them were reported exclusively by health authorities. In contrast, 843 confirmed and presumptive autochthonous cases and an additional 16 imported cases were identified in academic literature. No country-level surveillance mechanisms for MAYV were recorded in academic literature or by health authorities. Conclusions. This report demonstrates that MAYV surveillance efforts are limited in comparison to the virus’s presence in Latin America and the Caribbean, highlighting the importance of enhancing arboviral surveillance systems in the affected countries.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivos. Evaluar la distribución del virus Mayaro (MAYV) en América Latina y el Caribe y los mecanismos de vigilancia de nivel nacional. Métodos. Entre mayo de 2018 y mayo de 2019 se llevó a cabo una revisión bibliográfica sobre la fiebre de Mayaro en América Latina y el Caribe en las bases de datos PubMed, ClinicalKey, Scopus, Nature, SciELO, LILACS y Google Académico para identificar artículos en revistas arbitradas; también se revisó información suministrada por las autoridades sanitarias, entre ellas la Organización Panamericana de la Salud y los ministerios de salud. Se revisaron artículos relacionados con MAYV publicados entre 1954 y 2019. En este informe se incluyeron artículos que contribuyeran a la comprensión general sobre el MAYV, incluida su distribución geográfica y su epidemiología. Resultados. Se han reportado 901 casos de MAYV en seres humanos en 11 países de América Latina y el Caribe. Desde su descubrimiento en 1954 en Trinidad y Tobago, MAYV ha sido aislado de personas en Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Ecuador, Guayana Francesa, Haití, México, Panamá, Perú y Venezuela. De estos 901 casos, 42 fueron reportados exclusivamente por las autoridades sanitarias. A la vez, en la bibliografía se identificaron 844 casos autóctonos confirmados o presuntivos y 15 casos importados. A través de la bibliografía o las autoridades sanitarias no se identificaron mecanismos de vigilancia de nivel nacional para el MAYV. Conclusiones. En América Latina y el Caribe la vigilancia del MAYV es limitada en comparación con la presencia del virus en la región; es necesario mejorar los sistemas de vigilancia de arbovirus en los países afectados.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Analisar a distribuição do vírus Mayaro (MAYV) na América Latina e Caribe e avaliar os mecanismos nacionais de vigilância. Métodos. Dados da literatura acadêmica sobre a febre Mayaro na América Latina e Caribe foram coletados de maio de 2018 a maio de 2019. Foram pesquisadas as bases de dados PubMed, ClinicalKey, Scopus, Nature, SciELO, LILACS e Google Acadêmico para identificar artigos em revistas revisadas por pares; também foram examinados dados de autoridades sanitárias, incluindo a Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde (OPAS), e dos ministérios de saúde. Artigos relacionados com MAYV publicados de 1954 a 2019 foram revisados. Este relatório incluiu artigos que contribuíssem para o entendimento geral do MAYV, com informações sobre distribuição geográfica e epidemiologia. Resultados. Foram registrados 901 casos de MAYV em humanos em 11 países da América Latina e do Caribe. Desde a sua descoberta em 1954 em Trinidad e Tobago, o MAYV foi isolado em indivíduos na Argentina, Bolívia, Brasil, Equador, Guiana Francesa, Haiti, México, Panamá, Peru e Venezuela. Desses 901 casos, 42 foram comunicados exclusivamente pelas autoridades sanitárias. Por sua vez, 844 casos autóctones confirmados ou suspeitos e 15 casos importados foram descritos na literatura. Nenhum mecanismo nacional de vigilância do MAYV foi identificado na literatura ou pelas autoridades sanitárias. Conclusões. Na América Latina e Caribe, a vigilância do MAYV é limitada em contraste com a presença do vírus na região; é importante melhorar os sistemas de vigilância desse arbovírus nos países afetados.

Mayaro virus in Latin America and the Caribbean / Virus Mayaro en América Latina y el Caribe / Vírus Mayaro na América Latina e Caribe

ABSTRACT Objectives. To assess the distribution of Mayaro virus (MAYV) in Latin America and the Caribbean and evaluate existing country-level MAYV surveillance mechanisms. Methods. Research was conducted from May 2018 through May 2019 to collect data from academic literature on Mayaro fever in Latin America and the Caribbean. PubMed, ClinicalKey, Scopus, Nature, SciELO, LILACS, and Google Scholar were searched for peer-reviewed journal articles, and data from health authorities, including the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and ministries of health, was also sought. MAYV-related publications published from 1954 through 2019 were screened. Publications that added to the overall understanding of MAYV, including its geographical and epidemiological distribution, were included in this report. Results. A total of 901 MAYV cases have been reported in humans in countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Since its discovery in 1954 in Trinidad and Tobago, MAYV has been isolated from individuals living in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, French Guiana, Haiti, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. Of those 901 cases, 42 of them were reported exclusively by health authorities. In contrast, 843 confirmed and presumptive autochthonous cases and an additional 16 imported cases were identified in academic literature. No country-level surveillance mechanisms for MAYV were recorded in academic literature or by health authorities. Conclusions. This report demonstrates that MAYV surveillance efforts are limited in comparison to the virus's presence in Latin America and the Caribbean, highlighting the importance of enhancing arboviral surveillance systems in the affected countries.(AU)

RESUMEN Objetivos. Evaluar la distribución del virus Mayaro (MAYV) en América Latina y el Caribe y los mecanismos de vigilancia de nivel nacional. Métodos. Entre mayo de 2018 y mayo de 2019 se llevó a cabo una revisión bibliográfica sobre la fiebre de Mayaro en América Latina y el Caribe en las bases de datos PubMed, ClinicalKey, Scopus, Nature, SciELO, LILACS y Google Académico para identificar artículos en revistas arbitradas; también se revisó información suministrada por las autoridades sanitarias, entre ellas la Organización Panamericana de la Salud y los ministerios de salud. Se revisaron artículos relacionados con MAYV publicados entre 1954 y 2019. En este informe se incluyeron artículos que contribuyeran a la comprensión general sobre el MAYV, incluida su distribución geográfica y su epidemiología. Resultados. Se han reportado 901 casos de MAYV en seres humanos en 11 países de América Latina y el Caribe. Desde su descubrimiento en 1954 en Trinidad y Tobago, MAYV ha sido aislado de personas en Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Ecuador, Guayana Francesa, Haití, México, Panamá, Perú y Venezuela. De estos 901 casos, 42 fueron reportados exclusivamente por las autoridades sanitarias. A la vez, en la bibliografía se identificaron 844 casos autóctonos confirmados o presuntivos y 15 casos importados. A través de la bibliografía o las autoridades sanitarias no se identificaron mecanismos de vigilancia de nivel nacional para el MAYV. Conclusiones. En América Latina y el Caribe la vigilancia del MAYV es limitada en comparación con la presencia del virus en la región; es necesario mejorar los sistemas de vigilancia de arbovirus en los países afectados.(AU)

RESUMO Objetivo. Analisar a distribuição do vírus Mayaro (MAYV) na América Latina e Caribe e avaliar os mecanismos nacionais de vigilância. Métodos. Dados da literatura acadêmica sobre a febre Mayaro na América Latina e Caribe foram coletados de maio de 2018 a maio de 2019. Foram pesquisadas as bases de dados PubMed, ClinicalKey, Scopus, Nature, SciELO, LILACS e Google Acadêmico para identificar artigos em revistas revisadas por pares; também foram examinados dados de autoridades sanitárias, incluindo a Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde (OPAS), e dos ministérios de saúde. Artigos relacionados com MAYV publicados de 1954 a 2019 foram revisados. Este relatório incluiu artigos que contribuíssem para o entendimento geral do MAYV, com informações sobre distribuição geográfica e epidemiologia. Resultados. Foram registrados 901 casos de MAYV em humanos em 11 países da América Latina e do Caribe. Desde a sua descoberta em 1954 em Trinidad e Tobago, o MAYV foi isolado em indivíduos na Argentina, Bolívia, Brasil, Equador, Guiana Francesa, Haiti, México, Panamá, Peru e Venezuela. Desses 901 casos, 42 foram comunicados exclusivamente pelas autoridades sanitárias. Por sua vez, 844 casos autóctones confirmados ou suspeitos e 15 casos importados foram descritos na literatura. Nenhum mecanismo nacional de vigilância do MAYV foi identificado na literatura ou pelas autoridades sanitárias. Conclusões. Na América Latina e Caribe, a vigilância do MAYV é limitada em contraste com a presença do vírus na região; é importante melhorar os sistemas de vigilância desse arbovírus nos países afetados.(AU)

Identifying the social and environmental determinants of plague endemicity in Peru: insights from a case study in Ascope, La Libertad.

BACKGROUND: Plague remains a public health problem in specific areas located in Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador and Peru. Its prevention and control encompasses adequate clinical management and timely laboratory diagnosis. However, understanding communities' interaction with its surrounding ecosystem as well as the differences between community members and institutional stakeholders regarding the root causes of plague might contribute to understand its endemicity. We aim at bridging the traditionally separate biological and social sciences by elucidating communities' risk perception and identifying knowledge gaps between communities and stakeholders. This approach has been used in other areas but never in understanding plague endemicity, nor applied in the Latin American plague context. The objectives were to identify (i) plague risk perception at community level, (ii) perceived social and environmental determinants of plague endemicity, and (iii) institutions that need to be involved and actions needed to be taken as proposed by stakeholders and community members. The study was performed in 2015 and took place in Ascope rural province, La Libertad Region, in Peru, where the study areas are surrounded by intensive private sugarcane production. METHODS: We propose using a multi-level discourse analysis. Community households were randomly selected (n = 68). Structured and semi-structured questionnaires were applied. A stakeholder analysis was used to identify policy makers (n = 34). In-depth interviews were performed, recorded and transcribed. Descriptive variables were analyzed with SPSS®. Answers were coded following variables adapted from the Commission on Social Determinants of Health and analyzed with the assistance of ATLAS.ti®. RESULTS: Results showed that risk perception was low within the community. Policy-makers identified agriculture and sugarcane production as the root cause while community answers ranked the hygiene situation as the main cause. Stakeholders first ranked governmental sectors (education, housing, agriculture and transport) and the community prioritized the health sector. Social surveillance and improving prevention and control were first cited by policy-makers and community members, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The determinants of plague endemicity identified by the two groups differed. Similarly, actions and sectors needed to be involved in solving the problem varied. The gaps in understanding plague root causes between these two groups might hinder the efficiency of current plague prevention and control strategies.

A qualitative socio-ecological characterization of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market, La Libertad, Peru

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To identify 1) the main determinants of persistent Yersinia pestis circulation and the associated threat of plague at Hermelinda Market—a large farmers’ market in the city of Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru—and the main actions taken against it, as perceived by local stakeholders; 2) the level of plague risk perception among local actors; and 3) recommended actions to solve the plague threat at the market. Methods. A conceptual framework was developed combining a social determinants approach with a complex systems-thinking framework and a knowledge management perspective. A four-step qualitative protocol was carried out (literature review; stakeholder mapping; 37 semi-structured interviews; and coding/analysis). In the fourth step, the data collected in the semi-structured interviews were coded for eight social determinants of health (SDH) variables and analyzed with ATLAS.ti®, and an emerging category analysis was performed to identify risk perception levels. Results. Based on analysis by SDH variable, the three main determinants of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market were: 1) local (Trujillo City) governance, 2) infrastructure and basic services, and 3) local culture. According to the same analysis, actions most frequently undertaken against plague involved 1) infrastructure and basic services, 2) social vigilance, and 3) communication. The emerging category analysis indicated local risk perception levels were low, with most of the data pointing to “unhygienic” (“naturalized”) lifestyles and a general lack of awareness about the disease prior to plague-related health concerns at the market as the cause. Conclusions. The results indicate that the persistent circulation of Yersinia pestis at Hermelinda Market is not simply a technical matter but more of a managerial and cultural problem. As local governance was found to be a main factor in the persistence of this public health threat, future efforts against it should focus on sustainable inter-sectoral planning and education. Actions taken exclusively by the health sector and the improvement of infrastructure and basic services alone will not be enough to reduce the threat of plague at the market.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Establecer: 1) los principales determinantes de la circulación persistente de Yersinia pestis y la amenaza asociada de peste en el mercado La Hermelinda, un gran mercado de agricultores en la ciudad de Trujillo, Departamento de La Libertad en Perú, y las medidas más adecuadas para combatir la bacteria, según la percepción de los interesados directos locales; 2) el grado de percepción del riesgo de peste entre los actores locales; y 3) las medidas recomendadas para resolver la amenaza de peste en el mercado. Métodos. Se elaboró un marco conceptual que combinaba un enfoque de determinantes sociales con un complejo marco de pensamiento sistémico y una perspectiva de gestión del conocimiento. Se llevó a cabo un protocolo cualitativo de cuatro pasos (revisión bibliográfica; mapeo de interesados directos; 37 entrevistas semiestructuradas y codificación y análisis). En el cuarto paso, los datos recopilados en las entrevistas semiestructuradas fueron codificados conforme a ocho variables de los determinantes sociales de la salud y analizados con el programa ATLAS.ti ®, y luego se realizó un análisis de las categorías emergentes para establecer los grados de percepción del riesgo. Resultados. Sobre la base del análisis de las variables de los determinantes sociales de la salud, los tres principales determinantes de la amenaza de peste en el mercado La Hermelinda fueron: 1) la gobernanza local (Ciudad de Trujillo), 2) la infraestructura y los servicios básicos y 3) la cultura local. Según el mismo análisis, las acciones emprendidas con mayor frecuencia contra la peste se vincularon con 1) la infraestructura y los servicios básicos, 2) la vigilancia social y 3) la comunicación. El análisis de las categorías emergentes indicó que los grados locales de percepción del riesgo fueron bajos y la mayoría de los datos apuntaron como causas a los modos de vida “antihigiénicos” (“naturalizados”) y a una falta general de concientización acerca de la enfermedad antes de la preocupación acerca de la salud relacionada con la peste en el mercado. Conclusiones. Los resultados indican que la circulación persistente de Yersinia pestis en el mercado La Hermelinda no es sencillamente un asunto técnico sino sobre todo un problema cultural y de gestión. Como se encontró que la gobernanza local era un factor importante en la persistencia de esta amenaza a la salud pública, las actividades futuras para combatirla deben centrarse en la planificación y la educación intersectoriales sostenibles. Las medidas adoptadas exclusivamente por el sector de la salud y el mejoramiento de la infraestructura y los servicios básicos por sí solos no serán suficientes para reducir la amenaza de la peste en el mercado.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Identificar 1) os principais determinantes da circulação persistente de Yersinia pestis e o risco associado de ocorrência da peste no Mercado Hermelinda, um grande mercado de produtos agrícolas no município de Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru, e as principais medidas adotadas para enfrentar esta situação, segundo a percepção dos interessados diretos locais, 2) o nível de percepção do risco de ocorrência da peste entre os atores locais e 3) as ações recomendadas para eliminar o risco de ocorrência da peste no mercado. Métodos. Foi desenvolvida uma estrutura conceitual formada pela combinação de um enfoque de determinantes sociais, um enquadramento complexo de reflexão sistêmica e uma perspectiva de gestão do conhecimento. Foi conduzido um protocolo qualitativo de quatro etapas (revisão literária, mapeamento de interessados diretos, 37 entrevistas semiestruturadas e codificação/análise). Na quarta etapa, os dados coletados nas entrevistas semiestruturadas foram codificados para oito variáveis de determinantes sociais da saúde (DSS) e analisados com o programa ATLAS.ti®. Uma análise de categorias emergentes foi realizada para identificar os níveis de percepção de risco. Resultados. A partir da análise segundo as variáveis de DSS, os três principais determinantes do risco de ocorrência da peste no Mercado Hermelinda foram: 1) governança local (município de Trujillo), 2) infraestrutura e serviços básicos e 3) cultura local. Segundo a mesma análise, as medidas adotadas com maior frequência para evitar a peste foram: 1) infraestrutura e serviços básicos, 2) vigilância social e 3) comunicação. A análise de categorias emergentes indicou que o nível de percepção local do risco de ocorrência era baixo, sendo que a maioria dos dados apontou como causa hábitos de vida anti-higiênicos (“naturalizados”) e falta geral de consciência da doença anterior às preocupações de saúde relacionadas com a peste no mercado. Conclusões. Os resultados do estudo indicam que a circulação persistente de Yersinia pestis no Mercado Hermelinda não é simplesmente uma questão técnica, sendo mais um problema administrativo e cultural. Verificou-se que a governança local é um dos principais fatores para a persistência desta ameaça à saúde pública e os esforços futuros devem visar o planejamento intersetorial sustentável e a educação. Medidas adotadas exclusivamente pelo setor da saúde e a melhoria da infraestrutura e serviços básicos por si só não serão suficientes para reduzir o risco de ocorrência da peste no mercado.

A qualitative socio-ecological characterization of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market, La Libertad, Peru.

OBJECTIVE: To identify 1) the main determinants of persistent Yersinia pestis circulation and the associated threat of plague at Hermelinda Market-a large farmers' market in the city of Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru-and the main actions taken against it, as perceived by local stakeholders; 2) the level of plague risk perception among local actors; and 3) recommended actions to solve the plague threat at the market. METHODS: A conceptual framework was developed combining a social determinants approach with a complex systems-thinking framework and a knowledge management perspective. A four-step qualitative protocol was carried out (literature review; stakeholder mapping; 37 semi-structured interviews; and coding/analysis). In the fourth step, the data collected in the semi-structured interviews were coded for eight social determinants of health (SDH) variables and analyzed with ATLAS.ti®, and an emerging category analysis was performed to identify risk perception levels. RESULTS: Based on analysis by SDH variable, the three main determinants of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market were: 1) local (Trujillo City) governance, 2) infrastructure and basic services, and 3) local culture. According to the same analysis, actions most frequently undertaken against plague involved 1) infrastructure and basic services, 2) social vigilance, and 3) communication. The emerging category analysis indicated local risk perception levels were low, with most of the data pointing to "unhygienic" ("naturalized") lifestyles and a general lack of awareness about the disease prior to plague-related health concerns at the market as the cause. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that the persistent circulation of Yersinia pestis at Hermelinda Market is not simply a technical matter but more of a managerial and cultural problem. As local governance was found to be a main factor in the persistence of this public health threat, future efforts against it should focus on sustainable inter-sectoral planning and education. Actions taken exclusively by the health sector and the improvement of infrastructure and basic services alone will not be enough to reduce the threat of plague at the market.

A qualitative socio-ecological characterization of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market, La Libertad, Peru / Caracterización socioecológica cualitativa de la amenaza de peste en el mercado La Hermelinda, Departamento de La Libertad Perú / Caracterização socioecológica qualitativa do risco de ocorrência da peste no Mercado Hermelinda, La Libertad, Peru

Objective To identify 1) the main determinants of persistent Yersinia pestis circulation and the associated threat of plague at Hermelinda Market—a large farmers' market in the city of Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru—and the main actions taken against it, as perceived by local stakeholders; 2) the level of plague risk perception among local actors; and 3) recommended actions to solve the plague threat at the market. Methods A conceptual framework was developed combining a social determinants approach with a complex systems-thinking framework and a knowledge management perspective. A four-step qualitative protocol was carried out (literature review; stakeholder mapping; 37 semi-structured interviews; and coding/analysis). In the fourth step, the data collected in the semi-structured interviews were coded for eight social determinants of health (SDH) variables and analyzed with ATLAS.ti®, and an emerging category analysis was performed to identify risk perception levels. Results Based on analysis by SDH variable, the three main determinants of the plague threat at Hermelinda Market were: 1) local (Trujillo City) governance, 2) infrastructure and basic services, and 3) local culture. According to the same analysis, actions most frequently undertaken against plague involved 1) infrastructure and basic services, 2) social vigilance, and 3) communication. The emerging category analysis indicated local risk perception levels were low, with most of the data pointing to "unhygienic" ("naturalized") lifestyles and a general lack of awareness about the disease prior to plague-related health concerns at the market as the cause. Conclusions The results indicate that the persistent circulation of Yersinia pestis at Hermelinda Market is not simply a technical matter but more of a managerial and cultural problem. As local governance was found to be a main factor in the persistence of this public health threat, future efforts against it should focus on sustainable inter-sectoral planning and education. Actions taken exclusively by the health sector and the improvement of infrastructure and basic services alone will not be enough to reduce the threat of plague at the market.

RESUMEN Objetivo Establecer: 1) los principales determinantes de la circulación persistente de Yersinia pestis y la amenaza asociada de peste en el mercado La Hermelinda, un gran mercado de agricultores en la ciudad de Trujillo, Departamento de La Libertad en Perú, y las medidas más adecuadas para combatir la bacteria, según la percepción de los interesados directos locales; 2) el grado de percepción del riesgo de peste entre los actores locales; y 3) las medidas recomendadas para resolver la amenaza de peste en el mercado. Métodos Se elaboró un marco conceptual que combinaba un enfoque de determinantes sociales con un complejo marco de pensamiento sistémico y una perspectiva de gestión del conocimiento. Se llevó a cabo un protocolo cualitativo de cuatro pasos (revisión bibliográfica; mapeo de interesados directos; 37 entrevistas semiestructuradas y codificación y análisis). En el cuarto paso, los datos recopilados en las entrevistas semiestructuradas fueron codificados conforme a ocho variables de los determinantes sociales de la salud y analizados con el programa ATLAS.ti ®, y luego se realizó un análisis de las categorías emergentes para establecer los grados de percepción del riesgo. Resultados Sobre la base del análisis de las variables de los determinantes sociales de la salud, los tres principales determinantes de la amenaza de peste en el mercado La Hermelinda fueron: 1) la gobernanza local (Ciudad de Trujillo), 2) la infraestructura y los servicios básicos y 3) la cultura local. Según el mismo análisis, las acciones emprendidas con mayor frecuencia contra la peste se vincularon con 1) la infraestructura y los servicios básicos, 2) la vigilancia social y 3) la comunicación. El análisis de las categorías emergentes indicó que los grados locales de percepción del riesgo fueron bajos y la mayoría de los datos apuntaron como causas a los modos de vida "antihigiénicos" ("naturalizados") y a una falta general de concientización acerca de la enfermedad antes de la preocupación acerca de la salud relacionada con la peste en el mercado. Conclusiones Los resultados indican que la circulación persistente de Yersinia pestis en el mercado La Hermelinda no es sencillamente un asunto técnico sino sobre todo un problema cultural y de gestión. Como se encontró que la gobernanza local era un factor importante en la persistencia de esta amenaza a la salud pública, las actividades futuras para combatirla deben centrarse en la planificación y la educación intersectoriales sostenibles. Las medidas adoptadas exclusivamente por el sector de la salud y el mejoramiento de la infraestructura y los servicios básicos por sí solos no serán suficientes para reducir la amenaza de la peste en el mercado.

RESUMO Objetivo Identificar 1) os principais determinantes da circulação persistente de Yersinia pestis e o risco associado de ocorrência da peste no Mercado Hermelinda, um grande mercado de produtos agrícolas no município de Trujillo, La Libertad, Peru, e as principais medidas adotadas para enfrentar esta situação, segundo a percepção dos interessados diretos locais, 2) o nível de percepção do risco de ocorrência da peste entre os atores locais e 3) as ações recomendadas para eliminar o risco de ocorrência da peste no mercado. Métodos Foi desenvolvida uma estrutura conceitual formada pela combinação de um enfoque de determinantes sociais, um enquadramento complexo de reflexão sistêmica e uma perspectiva de gestão do conhecimento. Foi conduzido um protocolo qualitativo de quatro etapas (revisão literária, mapeamento de interessados diretos, 37 entrevistas semiestruturadas e codificação/análise). Na quarta etapa, os dados coletados nas entrevistas semiestruturadas foram codificados para oito variáveis de determinantes sociais da saúde (DSS) e analisados com o programa ATLAS.ti®. Uma análise de categorias emergentes foi realizada para identificar os níveis de percepção de risco. Resultados A partir da análise segundo as variáveis de DSS, os três principais determinantes do risco de ocorrência da peste no Mercado Hermelinda foram: 1) governança local (município de Trujillo), 2) infraestrutura e serviços básicos e 3) cultura local. Segundo a mesma análise, as medidas adotadas com maior frequência para evitar a peste foram: 1) infraestrutura e serviços básicos, 2) vigilância social e 3) comunicação. A análise de categorias emergentes indicou que o nível de percepção local do risco de ocorrência era baixo, sendo que a maioria dos dados apontou como causa hábitos de vida anti-higiênicos ("naturalizados") e falta geral de consciência da doença anterior às preocupações de saúde relacionadas com a peste no mercado. Conclusões Os resultados do estudo indicam que a circulação persistente de Yersinia pestis no Mercado Hermelinda não é simplesmente uma questão técnica, sendo mais um problema administrativo e cultural. Verificou-se que a governança local é um dos principais fatores para a persistência desta ameaça à saúde pública e os esforços futuros devem visar o planejamento intersetorial sustentável e a educação. Medidas adotadas exclusivamente pelo setor da saúde e a melhoria da infraestrutura e serviços básicos por si só não serão suficientes para reduzir o risco de ocorrência da peste no mercado.